Comparison of National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Reports and State Physical Education Mandates.
Introduction;
In the education sector, policies have a critical role in shaping the ways that the learning process is carried out. For learners, the impact of such policies are critically profound, as it determines the learning outcomes on graduation. Physical education is described as a pertinent component of study within learning institutions, which is premised on standards. It also includes evaluations done upon benchmarks and set standards. Proficient physical education instruction is meant to impart skills for movement, knowledge, and behaviors that can ensure that a student lives a healthy and physically fit life. Also, they are designed for one to show sportsmanship, emotional intelligence and self-efficacy. In schools, physical education emphasizes teaching children to adopt the science and mechanisms for being physically active and embrace healthy lifestyles. Therefore, it is a method through which students can engage in developmentally appropriate physical activities that assist in the development of their overall motor skills, fitness, and health (Robinson, 2011).
In the past, academic achievement parameters mandated by the state have had the unwanted result of lessening the chance that learners will engage in physical activities at school. Most schools have changed their time in school from physical education sessions to focus on the teaching experiences meant to enhance achievement in academic activities (Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005). Coherently, there is minimal research that shows that more hours in the classroom translates into improved test scores. In fact, 11 out of 14 correlational studies indicate that there is a noteworthy connection between accomplishments in class and physical education (Rasberry et al., 2011). Generally, there is large collection of research which indicates that physical activity can encourage a healthier body and mind (Hillman, Erickson, & Kramer, 2008).
Moreover, children have been known to respond quickly and with improved precision to a myriad of intellectual tasks after physical education classes (Pesce et al., 2009). One round of medium-intensity physical exercise has been established to raise behavioral and neural functioning of the brain that plays a role in focusing on certain cognitive tasks (Pontifex et al., 2012). Even more significant is that those that take part in aerobic forms of exercises outperform those that do not, when completing cognitive tasks (Sibley & Etnier, 2003). Additionally, if these are used as a break out of the traditional learning time allocated to academic work, the effects afterwards include better attention in class (Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011). Most important is that tutors are required to ensure that there are physical activity breaks to supplement their curriculum as a way of resetting the student’ mind and attention while in the classroom (Kibbe et al., 2011). Also, physical education classes have also been shown to improve student’s overall fitness in school, which also mediates in enhancing the academic grade of school-age children (Fredericks, Kokot, & Krog, 2006). This chapter offers a perspective on the physical education policies and the manner in which it transforms reading and writing as well as scores in mathematics.
Background of Study
The use of physical education in learning environments is not a new topic in education. Students have always had time for games, free-play and sports. However, this has not been given much importance by education stakeholders because it is seen as a “past-time” activity. It is a well-known fact that such ideas are based on the idea that school is only meant for the academic learning and not play. In the previous three decades, there have been multiple reviews and scientific analyses that point to the bond between physical education and activity with academic achievement (Grissom, 2005). Most of these assessments have emphasized that there is a connection between how a person performs in their classwork and physical activity. Recently, the studies have focused on school-age children, especially their participation in sports, physical activity and subsequent results in classwork (Singh et al., 2012). However, an overwhelming amount of results all have similar conclusions pointing out the fact that fitness achieved during physical education sessions has a beneficial effect on the academic performance of a child (Bornstein, Pate, & Buchner, 2014). This reaffirms the strong relationship has been established between aerobic fitness and mathematics scores.
While there are some boundaries for measuring the parameters of cognition, the character of the participants and the types of research design all point out to a strong relationship between physical education and its impact on reading, writing, and math scores. Concerning the physical activity interventions that were performed within and outside the school, it can be shown that those that involve groups lead to gains in academic scores. Significantly, the amount of research on this topic has grown exponentially with more evidence showing that there is a working relationship between physical education and reading, writing and grades in mathematics.
Physical Education started being a subject that is taught in schools in the beginning of the 19th century (Hackensmith, 1996). It was modeled along the gymnastics offered in German or Swedish schools but quickly spread throughout the world including countries such as the United States. First, it was recognized for the health benefits that it conferred on children. In the beginning of the 20th century, it also involved the need to exercise for the body’s health and personal hygiene. Its rationale was that through the incorporation of physical education in the curriculum of schools; it was possible to attain positive learning outcomes.
Nevertheless, the original purpose of physical education for improving healthcare was shifting towards the need for it to be used for overall development of the child. This approach was adopted by the education community that believed physical education encompassed the physical skills that became major components of instructions in the classroom. Consequently, in the past few decades, physical education has evolved to create a nexus between the movements of the body to the academic results. Apart from physical activity and healthy living, it is meant to teach children the science and art of the human body and how to use it to achieve more academically. In this context, Sallis and McKenzie (1991) offered their views on the importance of physical education and defined as containing content that is both complete but adopts education content capable of impacting student’s social, cognitive and physical skills. This perspective can also be emphasized by the fact that physical education involves educating learners in a physical manner (Siedentop & Van der Mars, 2004). Accordingly, the role of physical education can be said to be to prepare the learners for a life of being active all the times. Additionally, it is meant to involve them in physical activity as at the moment they are engaged in physical education. These are the lifetime advantages that enhance the health of a child while at the same time emphasizing the need to excel in classwork.
In any education that occurs within an institution, the main objective is to develop the learner’s intellectual capacity with the purpose of getting knowledge and skills in the relevant disciplines taught at school. In most cases, this kind of learning environment tends to support sedentary learning behavior, which is at times rewarded. However, physical education as part of the learning process offers an important opportunity for the learners to grasp concepts in physical movements and participate in activities other than normal school work. Notably, modes of education in an institution have changed from just educating the child about health and hygiene to that which also involves teaching them the benefits of physical mobility. This includes involvement in sports and exercise. During this time, there has been an enhancement of content that far surpasses the past German and Swedish gymnastic programs to more modern ones that have made physical education evolve. Particularly, the main motive has been to have a holistic development of a child to enable the realization of the academic dreams (NASPE, 2004). Here, the most important guiding principle is that a child must develop academically and at the same time be capable of participating in physical education activities.
From the beginning, physical education was added as a component of the education system in most states. Most policies concerning curriculum are formulated locally, within school district boards or particular institutions of learning but after abiding by the standards set by states. These are the same systems that have a great bearing in the way schools organize their physical education mechanisms.
NASPE argues that several states have started to compel that Physical Education is taught in the elementary and secondary learning institutions within their jurisdictions. Most curriculums in schools have units of lesson that include mobility instructions, education about sports and fitness of the human body. About participation in physical activity, two aspects are quite obvious. First, the program includes fitness education instructions that are meant to increase the physical activity of learners within the class (Lonsdale et al., 2013). The other involves models that consider physical activity as means through which the students attain learning skills and knowledge necessary to grasp the lesson that has been planned for them.
In other instances, movement education has been found to have been the foundation of physical education since the early 1800s. For instance, the ability to use the body for self-expression was theorized to be one of the pioneer concepts of physical education (Abels & Bridges, 2010). Over time, this has changed from giving much importance to the personal attitude of the person than to an emphasis on the role as well as the ability to apply wholesome movement. The significance of movement within physical education has been put forth through its addition of two NASPE policies meant for K-12 physical education. Essentially, these standards emphasize the need for learners to be aware of the most fundamental basic movement concepts that can also translate into different patterns. Therefore, physical educators must encourage achievement in motor function by offering basic skills that can allow them to participate in sports, games and other physical activities.
However, even with the plethora of research outlining the numerous benefits of academics in the development of physical education in educational institutions, it has become increasingly obvious that educational administrators have not moved towards a universal approach under which physical, educational practices are implemented in schools. Most states have continued to use their state-mandated policies that have in many cases failed to achieve the desired learning goals. Some of them have also been implemented partially or contrary to the set parameters that would be in line with an elaborate framework for such activities in schools. This forms the basis under which there is need to reassess the current policies and whether they are efficient. Therefore, with the problems experienced in the policies that have been in use, there is a need for a change to new policies that can be perceived to be ambitious and attainable.
Problem Statement
The above assertions show the manner in which the significance of physical education has been emphasized in the past decades. The studies have greatly shown that there is a connection between physical activity amongst school-going children and academic achievement. However, it is also reaffirmed that the policies underpinning physical education continue to be inconsistent. Similarly, the findings by Dr. John R. Ratey revealed extremely low assessment scores at a high school in Naperville, Illinois. With this in mind, it was possible to modify the physical education policies in Napperville, Illinois that enabled the students to have higher scores than other schools within the country.
Over time, there have been many changes in the physical education policies that cover multiple fields such as the manner that they are formulated and funded. In the period between 2015 and 2016, there have been revisions to such policies such as the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESSA) which was changed to the Every Student Succeeds Act and provided at Title IV Part A which regulated funding. From the onset, the funding is meant to support safe and healthy students that possess certain parameters. They should enjoy better mental health, protection from drug and violence, training on practices to avoid trauma as well as the incorporation of health and physical education in the policies (ESAA, 2015). Despite this, many states have amended physical education policies with minimal requirements to ensure that they get the financing that is received by Title IV Part A of ESSA. Moving forward, NAEP has marked results on the Reading/Writing and Math scores throughout this time of transition in physical education policies. Through the research by multiple agencies such as NAEP and Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE), it has become possible to evaluate the policies utilized to underscore the role of physical education and achievements in terms of academics.
In the past, there was a rise in the obesity epidemic in United States as carried out by a research conducted by the National Health Examination Survey (NHANES). In the 1960s, there was a 10 percent increase in the incidences of obesity in children between the ages of two and nineteen. Further, in 1989, it was found according to investigations by Up-dyke and Willet that the aerobic fitness levels of children had drastically reduced, which could be as a result of failing to perform the required physical activities. From this moment, the target became school-going children through the introduction of physical education classes in these schools (Pate, 2016). According to Resolution 97 of the United States Congress passed in 1987, it was decided that State and local governments, as well as agencies concerned with education, initiate workable physical education programs targeting children from kindergarten through grade 12 (Resolution 97, 1987).
Further, the 1993 report titled “Shape of the Nation” released by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education brought to light the Physical Education policies across all states. While at its earlier stages, the US registered an impressive number of physical education requirements in about 46 of its states, this was not adequate. After the division of the policies of these states into subgroups, the report went ahead to point out the inconsistencies present in them. Notably, only four states comprising Hawaii, Illinois, Kentucky and Rhode Island made it mandatory for students to take up particular physical education lessons in all the grades (SHAPE, 1993). Here, the revelation is that even though 46 states had claimed to have such policies, 42 of them did not have policies the covered every grade level. It is imperative that such cases could be attributed to the reduced budgetary allocations that affected the ability of these schools to hire physical education teachers. After the 1993 report, only five states could be stated to have fulfilled the recommendations concerning elementary schools and another four in secondary schools as required by NASPE.
In the year 2001, the “No Child Left behind” (NCLB) was legalized through an act that continued to pressurize school administrators to improve academic outcomes. At this time, there was an increased focus on performance in academics alone rather that both academics and physical activities in learning institutions (Center on Education Policy, 2011). Over the years, the emphasis had become on the sedentary life in the classroom that also inhibited the ability of learners to concentrate during learning (Gilbert, 2002). To fulfill the requirements of better academic performance, the persons charged with making policies had downplayed the role of physical education programs in the nation. However, even with the de-emphasis of physical activities in schools, the academic success had not been achieved. A notable observation is on the 2009 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey that states that there is an inverse relationship between physical dormancy and unhealthy eating behaviors, which in turn affects academic performance. Even though research has indicated that a constructive relationship exist between academic excellence and physical activity. It is also reaffirmed that a greater reduction in the quality of physical education and recess that schools offer within the schools in the United States (National Education Association, 2017).
In the 2000s, professionals embarked on widening the scope of physical education and its role in academics. In 2003, there was a study on the role that physical activity played on influencing cognition in children. This study concluded that the above variables were indeed related. While it categorized the study under seven assessments for cognitive ability, the most significant result was found that it enhanced the skills test while the memory tasks were at a minimal (Sibey & Etnier, 2003).
Further research by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) found that the results in the aforementioned study were valid as physical activity also contributed to enhanced cognition. In the study that has been mentioned above, it was also found that there were improved grades in mathematics, reading, and IQ. With such a huge research body in support of the benefits of physical activity and academic performance, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) also carried out its research that has confirmed that the correlation is positive (CDC, 2010). In the CDC study, it is also shown that physical activity amongst students may help to enhance their academic performance regarding the grades and the standardized test scores amongst others. It also improves their academic behavior such as attendance in school and the manner in which they approach tasks. Other factors that influence academic achievement are also discussed as seen in the way in which they concentrate, become attentive or behave in the classroom. The second result in this study also indicates that most students agree that physical activity improves their academic performances while the addition of time to Physical Education has no effect on the time allocated for the normal classwork. Consequently, schools should go ahead and offer and if possible add more time for physical activities.
Furthermore, the 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) allocated almost $ 1.65 billion to schools for a holistic education program that also provides physical education. This encouraged states to add these programs to their curriculums. The 2016 SHAPE report noticed improvements in the way that they approach physical education in schools from the elementary level, middle and high school. Most states have adopted policies that require minimal requirements to be able to access the funds allotted by ESSA. Now, more than ever, there is need to enhance the physical education programs in schools. Through comprehensive formulation of state policies based on SHAPE, it is possible to know the states that have adhered to the law. Importantly, NAEP has continued to assess the progress that has been made within the subjects covered in this dissertation. With this in mind, it is believed that a connection between the educational policies and academic performance should be evaluated and a connection drawn on the impact of physical education policies on the overall growth and development of a student on a national level.
In this research paper, I seek to determine the contribution that physical education policies make towards the Reading/Writing and Math scores of students. The rationale for this research question is based on the overwhelming evidence that seems to suggest that more physical activity in schools can advance academic performance. Moreover, the time added for a break and physical education with activities in class may also encourage improvements in class. Notably, the existing evidence also claims that Reading/Writing and Mathematics are the subjects which have been impacted the most by physical activity. The main reason is that they are dependent on an effective executive function that is incidentally linked to physical activity and fitness of a learner. Additionally, individual sessions and long-term participation of a participant helps in improving the cognitive well being of a person. Due to the importance of time in learning, learners must be engaged in intense physical activity as a way of improving their capacity to learn. While it is presently understudied, the importance of physical education and physical activity lessons offered in classrooms and in the field cannot be overlooked. To this extent, it will be theorized that high-quality physical education programs must be carried out by certified physical education teachers and must consist of a minimum of the recommended hours each week. It is also noted that there are substantial discrepancies in the mandates that every state requires regarding physical education programs. With these challenges in mind, it is imperative that states have to devise a means of ensuring that they adopt a universally accepted policy that can underpin physical education in schools.
Justification
As previously mentioned, it is proven that when students participate in physical exercises each day, then they are likely to benefit from many health benefits. First, it is obvious that regular exercises will improve strength, endurance, and reduce psychological stresses (Biddle & Asare, 2011). However, beyond these known health benefits, there are also those that can be attained while in the classroom. Every parent always desires that their children attain the best grades in report cards and standardized assessments. The federal, state and local governments, as well as school district boards, also have the main objective of producing students that are well-trained and have fulfilled the standards set by them. Additionally, the need to justify the massive spending on education amongst these stakeholders warrant that they investigate the fundamental means through which they can improve the learners’ outcomes during and after the learning process.
However, to achieve this feat requires that a student is holistically developed in a manner that makes them a true 21st century learner. It must also have a bearing on the academic behavior of the child such as the ability to complete tasks, which subsequently point at the academic achievement that they will attain at the end of schooling. Nevertheless, the present policies have barely addressed the concern about the overemphasis on academic performance rather than the whole development of a child. It is for this reason that it becomes imperative to investigate the manner in which Physical Education policies have contributed to the changes in Reading/Writing and Math scores of children in schools.
Research Questions
The research will be guided by the following questions:
- What is the landscape of Physical Education policies and how have they changed over time?
- Have changes to Physical Education policies contributed changes in 4th grade Reading scores over time?
- Have changes to Physical Education policies contributed changes in 4th grade Writing scores over time?
- Have changes to Physical Education policies contributed changes in 4th grade Mathematics scores over time?
Research Objectives
The specific research objectives for this research include:
- The current landscape of Physical Education policies and how they have changed over time?
- To determine whether changes to Physical Education policies contributed to 4th grade Reading scores over time.
- To determine whether changes to Physical Education policies contributed to 4th grade Writing scores over time.
- To determine whether changes to Physical Education policies contributed to 4th grade Mathematics scores over time.
Significance of Study
As previously mentioned, whenever children take part in the physical activities recommended, multiple benefits are accrued. However, it has been found that school-age children have not had much exposure to physical activity in their schools including both elementary and high schools. Schools are the best avenues through which students can access or fulfill their activity needs. However, schools have also been found to encounter challenges in apportioning the time required for physical education and/or physical activity. A growing body of research still suggests that there is a close association between physical activities at school that includes physical education classes to the overall academic performance of a child. For a better understanding of these connections, this study will significantly review the different contexts under which the different physical contexts, school-based physical activities and extracurricular physical activity support academic achievement in students. In essence, the significance of my research is to synthesize the vast body of research that has found that physical education policies will help in improving the Reading/Writing and Math scores of students in schools.
This study is important because it has many possible implications for the making of policies. Already, a substantial amount of evidence suggests that physical activity can help in improving the academic achievement of students as seen in the grades and the standardized scores. It is critical that policies be tailored towards improving these skills that can be translated into improved academic performance. Similarly, this study will show that it is possible to increase the concentration of students by having physical education classes within the curriculum. Another policy implication in this is the need to ensure that there is a marked rise in the number of hours allocated for physical education as these have a desirable effect on the academic advancement of a student. Furthermore, these results will give strategies that can be used by schools to assist students to attain the nationally acceptable physical education requirements without sacrificing the academic needs.
This study also offers guidelines for school-based physical education programs. Through it, teachers can learn ways of maximizing the potential benefits that students stand to gain by engaging in physical activity and education in class. With the resolutions made at the end of the research, teachers can find a way of adding the time that students require during physical education sessions. In addition, it can be used to enhance the components of the classes aimed at imparting knowledge about physical education. Essentially, it offers a framework through which teachers can organize how to increase the total days required for physical education in each week and how in seat time can be reduced. It also offers a guideline on how its overall quality can be improved, for example by using certified physical education teachers. The research also offers a path through which the quantity of active time during the physical education classes can be enhanced for the betterment of students.
Also, this paper will provide a foundation that confirms that teachers can also implement classroom-based physical education and activity. They can add movement activities within the classroom setting to help in improving the performance of students even when they are in the classroom. Some interventions such as short breaks and long breaks where students engage on their own can help the learners increase their concentration during instructional time. In another segment, this paper fully underscores the importance of extra-curricular physical activity. Through my research, it will be found that teachers and administrators can initiate school-based physical education programs without being concerned about it being detrimental to the academic success of students.
Overall, the significance of this study is to offer a different perspective on a national level in which physical education policies have a close connection to the academic performance of students. Particularly, the parameters of performance are reviewed from increases in Reading/Writing and Math scores. It also reveals that no longitudinal study comparing NAEP and Physical Education policies across the nation have been synthesized. Through a detailed and well-organized report obtained from organizations such as the CDC and SHAPE amongst others, it is hoped that the state policies that are currently in use, as well as the trends, can be modified to improve the quality of physical education in schools. This research paper uses more recent information from organizations such as The American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) that publishes reports to analyze the physical education policies of every state under the title “The Shape of The Nation.” These will help in offering better summaries on the modalities that can be used to modify physical education policies for each state. The fact that its reports have been made over a period spanning the years 1997, 2001, 2006, 2010, 2012, and 2016 makes it even more elaborate in determining which physical education policies can contribute to changes in Reading/Writing and Math scores of school-age children.
In essence, this research is meant to show every stakeholder in the education sector including the federal, state and local governments as well as scholars, students, teachers and parents the significance of Physical Education classes during course of a student’s academic career. A part of showing how past policies have had minimum success, it is meant to give a foundation to this debate as a guide to an approach that can easily be embraced to fulfill this important policy amendment. Moreover, it is hoped that it can form the basis under which legislators and policy makers can organize and manage education within the classroom and outside it. It forms a departure from the past policies that have been in use for almost five decades and gives the issue of physical education a fresh approach when used in the current learning processes. However, with proven benefits of Physical Education in the curricula of many schools, it becomes possible to evaluate the exact benefits that they bring to the students regarding scores in Reading/Writing and Math.
Design
This research paper will be divided into chapters with distinct areas of discussion. Already, the introduction has laid the basis for the dissertation by offering a background to the research paper that discusses the contribution of Physical Education in the learning process as seen in improved scores in Reading, Writing and Math. To achieve this, the next chapter discusses the scholarly work that has discussed this topic and the theoretical framework that covers it. Subsequent chapters will discuss the methodology to be used in this work, analysis of data and finally the discussion and conclusion of the research based on the research question. Notably, the design will include data obtained from scholarly articles and books. Additionally, books about the relationship between academic achievements and physical education will be used. Also, the periodic reports by important organizations in the United States that concern physical education in schools such as Shape of the Nation are incorporated in the research work. Finally, a fixed effects analysis of panel data drawn from data is used to make conclusions.
Strengths
This research paper has some strength. First, it uses a systematic mechanism to locate, review and code studies in that the scholarly work is obtained through an extensive search in databases. These studies cover broader contexts in which school children participate in physical education sessions when in school. Most of the studies used to support the research topic are intervention and longitudinal studies.
Limitations
The limitations in my analysis are the length of detail states choose to report of their current physical education policies. In attempt to complete a comprehensive analysis on state policies, state department of education websites were researched for additional information.
