Defining Culture
The first quotation at the beginning of this chapter draws our attention to the fact that culture is something we are raised with: the way we think, the way we perceive the world, and the way we interact with others are all acquired in early childhood. At that time, we are most susceptible to learning; we absorb all the available information, and subconsciously incorporate it into our behavior. We acquire culture not only from our parents, but also from our surroundings: our school teachers, classmates, extended family members, friends, and people we meet every day. Our values, priorities, and beliefs are formed according to the society we live in and the language we speak.
The second quotation refers to the differences between cultures of different countries. Think about Japan or Mexico for a minute. What images come to your mind? Do you think about sushi or a burrito? Maybe you have visited one of these countries before and can imagine the crowded streets of Tokyo or the pristine white beaches of Cancun. If you know somebody from one of these countries, you might be thinking about them right now.
But what exactly constitutes cultural differences? What does it mean that “the important point is that which lies behind people’s words?” Think about this question as you read the next part of this chapter. The answer should be clearer once you have finished this reading.
Culture as an Iceberg
An iceberg is a large piece of ice that has detached from a glacier and is floating in open water. What you may not realize, though, is that only about 10 percent of an iceberg is above the water, while about 90 percent of an iceberg is submerged in the sea. Culture has exactly the same characteristic; there is a part you can see, called surface culture, and a part you cannot see, which we call deep culture.
Surface culture consists of people’s behaviors, actions, and practices. Everything that we can observe or hear belongs to this category: language, manners, customs, food, music, clothing, art, literature, and body language. When we meet somebody from a different culture, we tend to make certain assumptions on the basis of what we see. This is just the tip of the iceberg (only 10 percent!), however, and for this reason, we should never judge a person because we do not truly understand the reasons behind their visible practices.
Figure 1. The iceberg model of culture.
Deep culture, on the other hand, consists of people’s attitudes, beliefs, and core values. These are not so easily noticeable because they exist in people’s minds. Core values, for example, differ from one culture to another. The definition of what is good and what is bad may differ from country to country. Our expectations are different, too. What is desirable and what is undesirable? What is acceptable and what is unacceptable?
Deep culture is like the bottom of the iceberg. It is not visible, but it constitutes the main part of our cultural differences. Our assumptions, expectations, priorities, and thoughts are all here: our attitudes towards gender, social status, age, raising children, perception of time, role of family, etc. These are the differences that make one culture different from the next. Surface culture is just a reflection of the deep culture. If we really want to understand a person from another culture, we must go beyond their visible behaviors and try to learn more about their beliefs and attitudes. Thus, enhancing our cultural sensitivity means learning to recognize different values that lie behind people’s words and actions.
| Evil vs. Good Dirty vs. Clean Dangerous vs. Safe Forbidden vs. Permitted Decent vs. Indecent Moral vs. Immoral Ugly vs. Beautiful Unnatural vs. Natural Abnormal vs. Normal Paradoxical vs. Logical Irrational vs. Rational |
Figure 2. Core values. Adapted from Hofstede et al. (2010, p. 9).
Five Barriers to Cross-Cultural Understanding
The exact same behavior may have completely different meaning in different countries. This causes the majority of cultural misunderstandings. There are five main barriers to cross-cultural communication.
Language Barrier
The first barrier is language. Obviously, if we do not speak the language of a host country, we will encounter many situations in which it will be hard to communicate. However, it is important to realize that learning a new language not only consists of studying vocabulary and grammar. It also includes cultural competence: “Knowing what to say, and how, when, where and why to say it,” may sometimes be more important than using correct grammar (Hofstede et al., 2002, p. 18).
This has a very important consequence for an EFL classroom: When we teach English to learners coming from different cultures, we should always teach what is culturally appropriate and what is not. For example, when you teach the phrase “How are you?” you need to teach that this is just a greeting – it is not a real question about how someone is. A native English speaker will be very surprised if the other person, instead of saying “good” or “great”, starts to complain about money or health problems. You do not expect somebody to tell you what worries them when you use this greeting.
Similarly, do not assume this is the case in other languages. If you ask the question, “How are you?” to a Hungarian, Russian, or Pole, they may start complaining. It is not appropriate in their culture to be so positive. Why would you say something that is not true? Why would you boast? In many cultures, if you ask this question, it means that you really want to know how the other person is feeling. If you were not interested in their feelings, you would not ask the question.
In Arab culture there is yet another difference. It is not enough just to ask “How are you?” when greeting another person. You also need to ask about the person’s family. “How is your family?” would be the next question. Again, in the U.S., we do not expect people we do not know well to ask about our family, but this is not necessarily true in other cultures.
Teaching such nuances of language means teaching cultural competence, and it is a very important aspect of any EFL class as it will contribute to students’ success in real life situations. Therefore, if a student ever says or does something that seems culturally inappropriate to you, do not take offense, and never take it personally. Always ask for clarification. The student probably does not want to offend you; it may be something that is culturally appropriate in their culture, and the student has simply translated it into English.
The second barrier to successful cross-cultural communication is nonverbal communication, such as gestures and the way we talk. According to James Borg (2010), only 7 percent of meaning is communicated through actual words, while 93 percent is derived from body language and paralinguistic cues. The components of non-verbal communication are presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Components of non-verbal communication. Adapted from http://verbalandnoncomm.blogspot.com/2011/02/non-verbal-communication-is-it-really.html
Contrary to what most people believe, body language is not international. A gesture in one country may have a completely different meaning, or it may have no meaning at all in another country. Make sure you learn which American gestures may be offensive in the country you are traveling to, and be aware of your own body language. Teach your EFL students the gestures we use in the U.S. so that they can understand the true meaning of English conversations.
Common Confusing Gestures: The thumbs-up sign, which you may use if you want to let your students know that they did a great job, can actually be offensive in Latin America, West Africa, Greece, Russia, and the Middle East. In those countries, the thumbs-up sign means almost the same as the middle finger. But the thumbs-up sign does not have any meaning in Southeast Asia (e.g., Cambodia, Laos, or Vietnam).
- Pointing with the index finger may be considered rude, especially in Asia.
- In India, pointing with your foot at people or touching books with your feet or shoes is extremely impolite, as feet are considered to be unclean.
- The crooked-index-finger “come here” gesture is highly offensive in Japan, and in some other Asian countries. In some countries, it is only used to call animals, while in others it beckons prostitutes.
- The American “bye-bye” gesture means “come here” to people from Southeast Asia.
- In Albania and Bulgaria, nodding one’s head up and down means “no” and shaking the head from side to side means “yes”.
- In many Asian countries, laughing can be a sign of embarrassment.
Stereotypes
Stereotypes constitute the third barrier to successful cross-cultural communication. A stereotype is a collection of attitudes and assumptions about a group of people, and the word has a negative connotation in general. We naturally try to classify people into different categories based on what we have heard or what we have experienced. The problem with stereotypes is that they are usually based on one occurrence. We apply one perception to an entire group, and once we hold it, we interpret what we see as proof that what we believe is true. And as we already know, the same behavior can have very different meanings and can be the result of different underlying values. What is more, stereotypes only paint a partial picture of a person and that person’s culture, and are often inaccurate.
Stereotypes should not be confused with generalizations. Generalizations are statements about other cultures that are based on cross-cultural research and are usually done by anthropologists or other experts. They are more reliable, as they take into account all available information. The purpose of generalizations is to help international communication by showing the different underlying attitudes and values behind visible practices.
Tendency to Evaluate People’s Behavior
The fourth barrier to effective cross-cultural communication is a tendency to evaluate people’s behavior as good or bad, or appropriate or inappropriate, based on our own cultural values. In other words, we make judgments about other cultures by our own standards, but our standards should not be applied to other cultures.
Imagine the following situation: You just arrived in a new country, and you need to buy some groceries, so you decide to go and look for a supermarket. After walking around for a few minutes, you decide to ask somebody for directions. You notice a woman nearby, so you approach her.
You: “Excuse me!”
Woman: (stops, looks at you hastily and walks on)
You: (walk up closer to her) “Excuse me!” (she looks down) “Do you speak English? Do you
know if there is a supermarket nearby?”
Woman: (points vaguely) “Excuse me. Walk that way and turn left.”
You: (smiling) “Thank you.”
Woman: (doesn’t answer, walks off in the other direction)
What would you make of this conversation?
- a) The woman was afraid of you.
- b) The woman disliked you.
- c) The woman was being respectful to you.
You may be surprised, but all of these answers could be correct depending on the place where the conversation had taken place. You may recall a situation in which you were alone in a place you were not familiar with – maybe in a bad neighborhood – and it was getting dark. How did you perceive strangers then? Were you afraid of them? However, if you have ever visited Korea or Japan, you may already know that people there tend to avoid eye contact. Looking another person in the eye is simply impolite in many countries in Asia.
Geert Hofstede (2002) advises that we should learn how to “separate observation from interpretation.” In other words, we should delay our judgments about a certain situation or a certain student’s behavior until we know enough about the culture we are in. As in the example above, the woman we asked for directions may not dislike us — she may simply be showing politeness and respect according to the customs in her culture. However, if we try to judge her according to American standards, we would say that she must have been scared or simply did not like us for some reason. Thus, delaying our judgments until we learn more about various behaviors will help us understand the real reasons behind other people’s actions.
Stress
The fifth barrier to cross-cultural communication is stress. Since we do not share the same language, our body movements can be misleading. We may have some preconceived beliefs, and may not be aware of different underlying values, which may lead us to becoming stressed and irritated. Try to be forgiving of other people’s behavior as well as of your own. Expect ambiguity in international communications and always try to maintain a good sense of humor.
Fortunately, there is a certain structure in this variety of cultures. Geert Hofstede (2010) was the first cross-cultural researcher to notice it, and he explained key points on which most cultures differ. To view a summary of Hofstede’s work on the dimensions of culture, watch the following video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Ot5dduOLTk&feature=youtu.be
Brooks Peterson (2004) went on to simplify these terms and called them “culture scales,” as each dimension can be assigned a certain place on a scale. Place on the scale does not mean that one culture is better or worse than others, only that it reflects the attitude people in that culture hold.
In this book we are going to follow Peterson’s scales, but we will only focus on the four categories that have clear implication for the behavior of ESL/EFL students in the classroom (see Figure 6).
| Equality Hierarchy |
| Direct Indirect |
| Individual Group |
| Task Relationship |
Figure 6. Four basic cultural dimensions. Adapted from Peterson (2004).
Equality vs. Hierarchy
Cultures differ in their attitude towards social status. In a culture based on equality, people tend to be treated equally regardless of their position, gender, or age. On the other hand, in a culture based on hierarchy, people are usually assigned different roles on the basis of their social position. The social status may be a result of someone’s age, educational background, or gender. People with a lower position will follow directions from those with a higher position.
American culture is based on equality. Both genders are treated in the same way. We do not respect an older person more just because of their age, but rather evaluate a person’s achievements and educational background. We tend to be informal with our superiors and treat them more as equals.
Japanese culture, on the other hand, is based on hierarchy. The older the person, the more respected he or she should be. Men and women are assigned different roles, and are expected to behave differently and be treated differently. A person whose status is lower will never challenge an opinion of those who are higher.
Equality vs. hierarchy is also reflected in the language people use, and it has important implications for the teacher-student relationship.
Language
In English, there is only one word for the second-person subject pronoun: “you”. Regardless of the person’s status or whether or not you know him or her well, “you” will always be used. In other languages, however, there may be several different words for the second person subject pronoun that are used according to the person’s social status.
French, for example, has two different second person subject pronouns: tu and vous. Both of them can be translated into English as you, but if you address your friend, relative, or a child, you should use the word tu, while if you are talking to someone older than you, or someone you don’t know well, you must use the word vous. The same distinction can be found in German and Turkish, where there are two forms of you: du and Sie, and sen and siz, respectively. Sometimes there are more than two words for you. Thai, for example, has fourteen different forms of addressing another person depending on their social position and age.
Classroom Implications
In the United States, teachers and students are generally treated equally. Classes are student-centered, learners are expected to ask questions if they do not understand something, and students are encouraged to share their opinions with the teacher. In an EFL classroom, there is emphasis on limiting teacher talking time and increasing student participation.
By contrast, in Japan students are inferior to the teacher. They are expected not to interrupt or challenge the instructor. Classes are teacher-centered, where the teacher lectures and initiates all classroom conversations. Students are not used to sharing their opinions or participating in class discussions.
Teaching in Asia is usually very surprising for many American teachers. Students do not ask many questions, and they are reluctant to talk. Judging just this behavior and not understanding the values behind it, an American teacher may assume students do not like him, while the truth is that they are being respectful to the teacher. See Table 1.
| Equality in the Classroom | Hierarchy in the classroom |
| Student-centered
Teachers and students are equals Students ask questions and may interrupt the teacher if they do not understand something Students share their opinions |
Teacher-centered
Teachers are treated with respect or even fear Students do not ask questions and never interrupt the teacher Teacher initiates all classroom interaction |
Table 1. Equality vs. hierarchy in the classroom.
Solutions
When preparing for a class in a culture based on hierarchy, plan for lots of pair- and group-work activities, as your students will be more comfortable talking in peer groups than with you, their teacher. If you teach adults, though, be careful not to put two students of a different social status together in one pair, as the person with the lower position will be inhibited by the person with the higher status.
Make sure you check your students’ understanding not by asking a “yes/no” question (as the answer will always be “yes”), but rather by asking them to restate what you said or to give an example of what they have to do.
Finally, accept your higher status. Do not try to become too informal with your students because you may lose their respect, which may result in discipline problems.
Direct Cultures vs. Indirect Cultures
In direct cultures, one expresses opinions in a frank manner and says things clearly without leaving much room for interpretation. Inindirect cultures, on the other hand, one avoids difficult or contentious issues and expresses views in a diplomatic way, counting on the listener to interpret meaning. American culture is considered direct, although many Europeans are even more direct than Americans. On the other hand, Japan is an example of a very indirect culture.
Language
The degree to which a certain culture is direct or indirect is reflected in language forms that are used. This is something that we as EFLteachers need to draw our students’ attention to. In intermediate-level ESL/EFL classes, we should teach how direct we are in different cultures. For example, how do we agree or disagree with a different opinion? In English, can we simply say “I disagree with you”? Well, maybe if we know a person well, but usually we would say something more indirect, like “I’m not sure about this”, or “I see your point, but…” Or at least we would say “Well, I’m afraid I must disagree with you.” In countries like France, on the other hand, it is natural to disagree, and it is all right to say, “I disagree with you.” The other extreme is Japan, where you never openly disagree with another person. This could result in “losing face,” and would be very disrespectful to that person. In this way, France and Japan are on opposite sides of the spectrum of directness.
Classroom Implications
In direct cultures, students say clearly if they do not understand something. They are also not afraid to express their opinions even if the majority of the classmates or the teacher does not share their point of view. Students also enjoy discussing controversial issues. If you teach in Europe, your students will eagerly participate in debates on taboo topics and controversies.
In indirect cultures, students usually do not let the teacher know if they do not understand something so that they do not lose face. Even if asked if they understand, their response will almost always be positive. Students do not openly oppose their classmates’ or their teacher’s opinions. Asking them to debate over a controversial topic may result in low student participation. See Table 2.
| Direct cultures | Indirect cultures |
| · Students say clearly if they do not understand something.
· Students express their opinions even if they differ from the teacher’s point of view or that of other students. · Students enjoy discussing controversial issues. |
· Students do not let the teacher know if they do not understand something.
· Students do not openly oppose another student’s or teacher’s viewpoint. · Students avoid discussing controversial issues. |
Table 2. Direct vs. indirect cultures in the classroom.
Solutions
In indirect cultures (e.g., Japan), always ask your students to work in groups before asking for individual opinions. Try to avoid discussing very controversial topics and avoid confrontations. Be extremely careful when giving your students negative feedback. Never criticize a student in front of the whole class as this will result in “losing face” and will be extremely embarrassing to your students.
Individual vs. Group
In individual cultures, people are viewed as individuals; they are expected to take initiative, focus on themselves, and put the well-being of an individual before a group’s interests. People also tend to make friends faster but more superficially, and are comfortable moving in and out of groups.
In group or collective cultures, people belong to a certain group and their identity is determined by the group affiliation. Their decisions are made by all group members, and not individually. The interests of a group are more important than the well-being of an individual.
In group societies (e.g. in Asian or Arab countries), family usually plays a paramount role, such that even adult children will not make a decision without their parents’ consent. It is not unusual for married couples to live together with their parents in one house or at least nearby.
In the United States, most of us value individualism, and it is actually one of the most important values that we hold. When a child is born, in many homes he or she is expected to sleep in his or her own crib – a custom very strange to most Asians who co-sleep with their children in the same bed until a child is four or five years old. In Italy, three generations may live under the same roof, and in many places, parents must be asked for permission before their adult children can marry. We are an individual society, though, so most of us make decisions independently.
Classroom Implications
In individual cultures, students study so that they know how to learn. The assumption is that learning never ends. There is an emphasis on being self-reliant, and that is why cheating on a test is unacceptable and serious consequences follow if a student cheats on an exam or plagiarizes an assignment.
In group societies, students study so that they learn how to do things. The concept of continuous learning is not so common because one has an assigned role within a group, which makes changing professions or receiving a promotion much less expected. Students value cooperation; therefore, cheating or plagiarizing is not considered such a harmful thing to do. For example, teaching in China may be a challenge for an American teacher who is used to completely different standards in the United States, where plagiarizing is completely unacceptable. See Table 3.
| Individual Cultures | Group Cultures |
|
o Students learn how to study. o Idea of continuous learning. o Cheating on an exam is not acceptable. o Plagiarism is unethical and even criminal
|
o Students learn how to do things. o People study when they are young and rarely continue into adulthood. o Teachers tend to turn a blind eye to students who cheat or plagiarize. |
Table 3. Individual vs. group cultures in the classroom.
Solutions
Consider giving group projects instead of individual testing. If you must assess individual students, make two variations of a test or ask open-ended questions so that it is harder for students to replicate each other’s answers. During the test, proctor carefully, try to separate friends from each other and isolate problem students. Do not get angry with your students! They are not intending to be disrespectful to you; this is a cultural difference in how people define honesty.
Task vs. Relationship
In cultures based on a task style, work is a very important part of a person’s life. Their job defines who they are and people are willing to sacrifice their leisure or family time in favor of work. They do business before pleasure. But in cultures based on a relationship style, work is still considered important, but relationships and family are imperative. A job is just a job and it does not define who the person is. Instead, family and relationships define the person, e.g. “I am the oldest brother.”
American culture is task-oriented. If someone receives a good job offer, they may move to a different state or even country, leaving their extended family behind. Young people usually go to college in a different city than where their parents live. This is because American culture is individual and task-oriented. Choosing business before pleasure is the norm. Arab culture, on the other hand, is relationship-oriented. Conducting business requires the establishment of relationships first.
Classroom Implications
When teaching in relationship-oriented cultures, such as in Arab, Indian, or Latino cultures, do not be surprised if a student disappears from the class for a week or longer if something concerning their family occurs; it may be the birth of a cousin, a wedding ceremony, or a grandparent’s illness. Students from such cultures give priority to family loyalty, even if it might negatively affect their school performance. See Table 4.
| Task Cultures | Relationship Cultures |
|
· Classroom attendance is essential.
|
· Absenteeism may result from family obligations. |
Table 4. Task vs. relationship cultures in the classroom.
Solutions
Make your classroom expectations clear, but at the same time try not to become frustrated with a prolonged absence of one of your students. Always save handouts for the students who are not in class. Be empathetic and ask if they need help with the covered material. You can assign another student to help the person who was absent. Do not teach the same lesson again; instead, ask the students who were present to explain what you covered in class.
Finally, make sure that you explain to your students that if they ever decide to study or work in the United States, classroom attendance is essential. Being absent from class or work for any reason may have serious consequences.
Summary
It is extremely important not to treat these dimensions of national cultures as positive or negative. An equal society is not better than a hierarchical one. A direct culture is in no sense better than an indirect one. Individual culture is not better than group culture. Relationship-based society is not worse than task-based society. These are just common themes that help us better understand people’s values and should not be used to appraise a certain culture.
If you are confused by your students’ behavior, ask them for reasons behind their actions and try to understand their choices. Conversely, if your students are surprised by your behavior, explain your reasons and the values that are important to you. Only an honest exchange of ideas can help us understand each other’s values and help us avoid stereotyping.
Now that you know the importance of culture, work towards integrating cultural awareness into your classes. To help you start thinking about the use of culture in your classroom, watch the following video.
Culture Shock
Reflect on your own experiences. Can you think of a time when you were homesick? Maybe you moved away to attend college? Maybe you have lived or studied abroad for a certain period of time? How did you feel about leaving your family and friends behind? How easy was it to make new friends? What other things seemed surprising or unusual to you? How did this experience change you?
Soon you are going to live in a foreign country, one that you may have never visited before. Maybe you have never been abroad before. But one day, you will arrive in this completely new environment and you will need to interact with people on an everyday basis. You will go to work, buy groceries, and go out for dinner. You probably will not speak the language and your neighbors may not speak English, and their culture will be entirely new to you and your culture will be new to them.
At first you will be delighted to be there, but as you encounter more and more cultural misunderstandings, you may experience culture shock. Culture shock is a series of stages experienced by a person who is immersed in a foreign culture (Hofstede et al., 2002).
Stages of Culture Shock
Honeymoon Stage
The first stage is called the honeymoon phase. You just arrived in a new country, and you are excited; maybe this is your first full-time job, or maybe you have had a change of career. In any case, you are open to new experiences, curious to try different foods, and eager to make new friends with local people.
Culture Shock Stage
The second stage is when culture shock sets in. You start becoming irritated by the cultural misunderstandings you have been encountering, and feel disoriented from not knowing how to behave. Your students may also behave differently than what you anticipated. Their behavior will be typical of what is expected from them in their native country, but your expectations will likely differ. At this point you may also start missing your family, friends, and your favorite foods. In some cases, this may lead to a negative view of the job, the country, and your colleagues.
Adjustment Stage
The third stage involves recovery and adjustment to the new environment. By this time, you have learned what is appropriate and inappropriate in a given culture, and you have embraced and accepted this new behavior. You have probably made some new friends, and you feel comfortable in the new culture.
The length of each stage varies from person to person and depends on previous travel experience, openness to new cultures, and willingness to adjust. Usually, when your contract ends, you feel comfortable and are excited about returning home and sharing your experiences with family and friends. This is usually when the reverse culture shock occurs.
Reverse Culture Shock
You may feel lonely because family and friends may not understand how this cross-cultural experience has changed you. You may also miss your students and friends, and those aspects of the foreign culture that you enjoyed the most. It may take some time to re-adjust to life in your home country.
A TEFL Teacher Experience
No matter how much preparation you do before your move abroad, you are likely to experience some form of culture shock. Listening to other TEFL teachers who have gone through these stages can help to better prepare you for your own experience. To this end, watch the following TEFL teacher share his personal story of culture shock:
Minimizing Culture Shock
How can we minimize the culture shock? Firstly, make sure you prepare well for your trip. Do research about the country you are going to, and try to learn about people’s practices and values. Search for information and videos about teaching EFL in that country.
Once you recognize the symptoms of culture shock, be proactive and try to adjust to it. Discuss your feelings with other Americans and foreigners that you will meet in your host country. Try to focus on positive aspects of your host culture. Like anything else, it will be a process, and you may sometimes feel like you are taking two steps forward and one step back. That is normal.
Always think about the positive aspects of teaching abroad and experiencing a new culture. Ideally, you will gain greater confidence; you may become more assertive and independent. Your empathy will increase as you acquire greater cultural sensitivity. You will also become more patient, tolerant, and flexible. You will develop a better understanding of foreigners and immigrants who come to your home country, and you will be able to use this experience to find a new job once you return home.
Minimizing Culture Shock Exercises
Exercise 1
In Japan, South Korea, and many other Asian countries, visiting a public bath is a common weekend activity. Friends and even whole families go together to socialize there. It may feel awkward at first, but it is definitely an experience you will never forget.
Listen to the recording about Japanese Public Baths from this URL: http://www.esl-lab.com/bath1/bath1.htm.
Exercise 2
Consider the following situations. Is the cultural misunderstanding a result of a difference in surface culture or deep culture? If it is deep culture, try to explain the values or beliefs that guided the students’ behaviors.
Situation 1
You are in Thailand. You enter your new classroom and all the students stand up, put their hands together close to their chin, and bow to you. What do you do?
Situation 2
You teach adults in Argentina. After you finish teaching the class, all your students come to you one by one to say goodbye, and they want to kiss you. What do you do?
Situation 3
You teach young learners in Asia. You want to take your first-graders on a field trip. You ask them to line up, and then you start counting your students by placing your hand on each of your students’ heads. Your students cringe. Why?
Situation 4
You are in Korea. You have collected your students’ compositions and corrected them in red ink. You wrote the following comment: “Ujin Kim, these are some excellent ideas, but you need to work on the use of articles.” Your student looks very distressed. Why?
Situation 5
You teach in a public school in Korea. One of the students kept talking to another student while you were trying to explain a grammar point, so you told her to stop talking and listen to you. The student laughs at you. Is the student disrespectful? What should you do?
Situation 6
You teach in India. You prepared a handout for your students. You are left-handed, so you use your left hand to distribute the sheets of paper. One of your students refuses to take the handout from you. What is the problem?
Situation 7
You teach in the Middle East. You planned your lesson on different types of food. After a warm-up activity, your students do not want to further discuss this topic. Why? What should you do now?
Situation 8
You are in Asia. You went with other Asian teachers for lunch. All of them make loud slurping sounds and they smack their lips. What do you make of it?
Situation 9
You teach in Saudi Arabia. Read the following dialogue and decide if the student cheated on the test.
Teacher: Mustafa was looking at your paper.
Student: He was?
Teacher: Yes. He copied some of your answers.
Student: Perhaps he didn’t know the answers.
Teacher: I’m sure he didn’t.
Student: Then it’s lucky he was sitting next to me.
Situation 10
You teach in China. You explained an exercise to the student, and then asked her if she had understood. The student said yes, even though she didn’t understand. Why?
Student: Excuse me teacher, I need some help with this exercise.
Teacher: Of course. Let me explain again.
Student: I asked another student, but she couldn’t help me.
Teacher: Yes, it’s quite complicated, but after I explained it to you and asked if you understood, you said ‘yes’.
Student: Yes. Please excuse me.
Comments and Explanations for Exercise 2
Situation 1
Thailand has a very hierarchical culture. Every person has a certain status and the person whose status is lower needs to bow first. Thus, it is normal for students to bow to greet the teacher, and the teacher should bow back to the students.
In some other countries, for example in Russia or Poland, students in public schools must stand up when the teacher enters the classroom. The teacher then says “Good morning,” the students answer back, and then the teacher tells the students to sit down. Only after such an introduction can you start teaching the class. If you do not ask your students to stand up when you enter the classroom, they may lose respect for you as a teacher.
Situation 2
Argentines tend to kiss more than most Latin cultures. It is customary to greet and say goodbye with a kiss on the cheek even with colleagues or bosses, especially if you spend the whole day with them. A man can also shake hands with another man (not with a woman), but he may also kiss the other man. Thus, it is not unusual for students to come and kiss their teacher, even if the teacher is male and they are male. As an English teacher you don’t have to do this, but you would probably have to explain this cultural difference to your students.
Situation 3
Touching a child’s head in many Asian countries is considered highly inappropriate, as it is believed to bring bad luck to the child. In Buddhism, the head is also a holy part of the body. Therefore, many Asian students are not used to adults other than their parents or close relatives touching them on the head. As a rule of thumb, it is preferable to pat your students on the shoulder when you want to count them or offer encouragement.
Situation 4
Many religious Koreans only write a person’s name in red ink at the time of the person’s death. Thus, writing a student’s name in red ink may be very shocking to students and their parents. To avoid such situations, use a different color, such as dark green or violet, when grading your students’ papers.
Situation 5
In many countries in Asia, laughing or smiling can be a sign of embarrassment. Thus, do not get angry if your students laugh or smile when you reprimand them. Instead, just tell them to behave well and continue your teaching without further dwelling on the student’s behavior.
Situation 6
In India and in many Muslim countries, the left hand is considered unclean and should never be used to greet another person, to touch food, or to give something to another person. The belief originated in the past when water was scarce and the left hand was used for cleaning oneself after using the bathroom. Even though these hygienic customs no longer are necessary, many people still regard the left hand as taboo. Therefore, even if you are left-handed, make sure that you always use your right hand to greet others, to touch food or drink, or to distribute handouts in the classroom.
Situation 7
It might be Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. This is a month of fasting, during which Muslims are not allowed to eat or drink anything from dawn until sunset. Do not plan any classes on food vocabulary during this time.
Situation 8
Making eating noises, including slurping sounds, lip smacking, and belching, is considered complimentary in most parts of Asia. To someone from a Western culture it may be quite disturbing, but remember eating noises do not indicate lack of manners!
Situation 9
The student may not want his friend, Mustafa, to do poorly on a test and be embarrassed; that is why he let him rewrite the correct answers. Avoiding shame is paramount to a student’s culture in many Arab countries. What an American teacher perceives as cheating, the student sees as cooperation; in his culture, you always have your family and friends to help you, just as they can always depend on you.
Situation 10
The student may want to protect the teacher from embarrassment. If she said she hadn’t understood, it would mean that the teacher hadn’t done a good job explaining. And that would be humiliating for the teacher. Or maybe the student said she understood to protect her own face and hoped her friend could clarify it for her.
You should never ask your students if they understand because the answer will always be positive. Instead, ask them to explain the task in their own words or to give an example of how to complete the first point in a given exercise.
References
Borg, J. (2009). Body language: 7 easy lessons to master the silent language. FT Press.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede G.J., & Minkov M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (3rd ed.). Chicago: McGraw Hill.
Hofstede, G.J., Pedersen, P.B., & Hofstede, G. (2002). Exploring culture: Exercises, stories and synthetic cultures. Boston: Intercultural Press, Inc.
Peterson, B. (2004). Cultural intelligence. Boston: Intercultural Press, Inc.
