CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Beyond the requirements established by each teacher education program (TEP), most states require teacher candidates to pass a standardized test for certification. These standardized exams are designed to determine a potential teacher’s competency and ability to effectively perform the tasks of a professional teacher. Like each college or university, each state sets its own standards and requirements; therefore, requirements and assessments vary by state. For students to fulfill the mandates of their institution’s TEP and complete the state implemented certification process which involves standardized testing (Educational Testing Services, 2019). Although these requirements have been in place for years and have been regarded as an integral part of both TEPs and state credentialing processes, because of such assessments, one score has become pivotal, at many institutions, to determine whether students were admitted to and graduated from TEPs Educational Testing Services (2019). The Praxis Core Academic Skills for Educators along with the Praxis Content Subject area, for example, is used by more than 40 states as an indicator of potential teacher skills.
The Praxis is a series of standardized assessments created and administered by the Educational Testing Services (ETS), a nonprofit corporation also responsible for other well-known standardized assessments such as the Graduate Record Exam (GRE) and the Test Of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL ) (Educational Testing Services, 2019). The Praxis Series™ assessments are used by most American state education agencies to make sound decisions regarding state licensing for new educators in the teaching profession, and a passing score is required to attain teaching certification (Educational Testing Services, 2019). Three tests in the Praxis Series™ are administered to a student seeking admission into aTEP and graduating teachers: Praxis Core Academic Skills for Educators; Praxis I: Pre-Professional Test Skills, and Praxis II: Subject Assessment. Through traditional and alternative ways, teachers can enter the teaching profession. However, licensure examinations, such as Praxis are often mandatory (Nettles, Scatton, Steinberg, & Tyler, 2011). These exams are often viewed as “gatekeepers” of entry into the teaching profession.
In Alabama, the Praxis has set regulation that govern admission of teachers to the institutions of learning to be 2.75 GPA limiting the number of Black minority teachers from joining the institutions offering education programs. The Praxis test was developed to address specific tests limiting the teacher training personnel due to the scores they accept. In order to acquire teacher certification in Alabama, it is mandatory for a candidate to fulfill the standard requirements, primarily a completion of a four-year bachelor’s degree program in a teacher preparation program that is approved by the (ALSDE, 2019). In essence, the ALSDE oversees the process, which ensures that all prospective teachers pass state examinations. While the structure of educator certification system at ALSDE is not tiered, following the satisfaction of the basic requirements, a prospective teacher is awarded the initial and standard Professional Educator (Class B) Certificate (ALSDE, 2019). The certification is maintained valid by continuing to document professional development hours, or advancing teaching career by earning a master’s degree for an advanced Class A certification. Admission to teacher education programs in Alabama requires prospective candidates to apply formally for admission into respective programs commencing with orientation courses in preparation of a teacher education career (ALSDE, 2019).
Minority students tend to be left behind based on the issue of diversity that limits them from qualifying in the teaching profession (Alabama State Department of Education, 2014). Currently, the population of the minority students in the U.S. schools is on the increase, but there are fewer African American teachers.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this phenomenological study was to discover the Praxis preparation factors (i.e., programs, policies, and practices) that contribute to or limited exam success among African American TEP students, at two public Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) in Alabama. Praxis includes both the Praxis Core Skills for Education and the Praxis subject area exam. Praxis preparation and success factors will be generally defined as– there are several factors for the high percentage of people who pass the exam. Studies have shown that the people are more likely to pass the Praxis exam the first time have higher college grades, higher SAT scores, and are more likely to have more challenging coursework in college.
This study examined the experiences and perceptions of African American students enrolled at the Alabama HBCUs, as well as the perceptions of faculty and program directors of the TEPs at the same site institutions.
Statement of the Problem
School teachers are often the primary assessors of academic students’ need. To become a certified school teacher through many state education agencies, prospective teachers must pass the Praxis Series® assessments. Such is the case in Alabama; however, there is disparity between the number of White and African American TEP students who successfully pass the Praxis. Even more, although African Americans represent 15% of American students, only 11% of America’s teachers are African American (Nettles, Scatton, Steinberg & Tyler, 2011).
There is a wide gap between white and minority students in K-12 (Madklins, 2011). The author attributes this to the reduced number of African American teachers. As much as having a diverse workforce benefits all learners, African American students must have African American teachers teaching them. Statistics indicate that 79% of the Alabama teachers are White and the African American are 19% teaching 33% minority students in public schools, where 55% are White students (Peatross, 2011). As much as the number of African American teachers has been increasing at a national level, Alabama has experienced a low absorption of African American teachers owing to their underperformance in Praxis Core (Partelow et al., 2017).
It is problematic that the student population does not match the teaching workforce, especially in urban school districts (Madkins, 2011). The disparity gives no room for the African American students to see a reflection of themselves in the professional realm. Madkins (2011) argues that the presence of African American in the education profession is important as they (a) act as role models to the African American students and, (b) share linguistic backgrounds and cultural experiences, which serve as a foundation for everyday teacher-student interactions. As much as efforts such as alternative certification programs have been implemented to increase recruitment of African American teachers, few are admitted to the TEP.
Research Questions
The overarching research question for this phenomenological study is:
RQ1. What programs, policies, or practices contribute to or limit Praxis exam success among African American TEP students at two public HBCUs in Alabama?
This overarching research questions will be researched through the following sub-questions provide for this study:
RQ2. How do African American TEP students perceive Praxis preparation at two public HBCUs in Alabama?
RQ3. What are the lived experiences of African American TEP students as they prepare for the Praxis at two public HBCUs in Alabama?
RQ4. How do TEP faculty and program directors perceive Praxis preparation at two public HBCUs in Alabama??
RQ5. What are the lived experiences of TEP faculty and program directors as they prepare African American students for the Praxis exam at two public HBCUs in Alabama?
Methodology
This study utilized qualitative methodologies, which is used to better understand situations, events, roles, or groups (Creswell, 2013). Specifically, phenomenological approach was used to examine TEP students, faculty, and program directors’ perceptions (i.e., the participants) about factors (i.e., programs, policies, or practices) that contribute to or limit Praxis exam success among African American TEP students at two public HBCUs in Alabama. This phenomenological approach included open-ended, in-depth interviews, and a survey of participants. The phenomenological will allow for exploration of the perceptions and lived experiences of African American students who are knowledgeable of the Praxis Series assessments. In keeping with the suggested sample size for phenomenological research, at least twenty participants (Creswell, 2013) were interviewed and surveyed to examine in-depth experiences and their perceptions with the Praxis Series® assessments.
Significance of the Study
This study is significant because it aims to examine Praxis assessment factors that could have led to Praxis test score success or limitations among African American TEP students who attend two public HBCUs in Alabama. Moreover, the two public HBCUs historically produced significant numbers of African American teachers. The first institution, Northeastern Alabama College (NAC), a pseudonym, was previously the biggest producer of African American teachers in the state (Citation). The second institution, Southwestern University of Alabama (SWUA), a pseudonym, was established as a teaching college. These universities, congruent with national trends, have experienced declines in (a) TEP student enrollment and (b) successful Praxis assessment outcomes (CITATION). These institution-specific declines coincide with a national African American teacher shortage. The United States Department of Education (USDE) has established measures to ensure teachers of color are recruited to reflect the diversity of the country’s young people. As it is today, more than a third of the school population is composed of African American students, whereas the African American teachers account for less than 20% of the teaching pool in public schools (Bireda & Chait, 2011).
The findings of this study could impact disparity between White and African American students’ Praxis scrores by (a) amplifying the challenges undergraduates undergo to achieve a passing score on the Praxis exam and (b) highlighting the disparate effect the assessments have on the teaching pool. According to Nettles, Scatton, Steinbery, and Tyler (2011), out of all the applicants, only 11% were African Americans, and out of that number, only 13% were able to meet the minimum Praxis core and subject content scores for teacher licensure (Nettles et al., 2011). The findings could also provide evidence-based facts that can help reduce the widening gap between student populations and African American teachers. There is a slow growth on the minority teaching population with a steadily increasing of the minority student population in the U.S (Nettles et al., 2011).
As per the 2012 U.S. Census, the population of African Americans has grown to over three million, accounting for a 14% growth since 2002. In Alabama, African Americans account for 26.2% of the population (1,251,311 people). The burgeoning African American population equally creates opportunities and challenges for the future which the nation, if not the state, must find ways of ensuring the diverse and underprivileged generation access to education. This study could identify the factors that help to explain African American’s access into the teaching profession. Additionally, the study could impact TEP policies at institutional and state levels.
Conceptual Framework
The study adopted a deficit theory that describes why disadvantaged students are highly susceptible to failure (Scherer, 2016). The model examines disparities based on deficiencies. In the case of the present study, the deficit theory would assume that African-American students lack the necessary language skills because of the cultural disadvantage.
Deficit Theory
In education construct, deficit theory was coined by Eller in 1989, which suggest that learners who were presented with different norms in a significant manner should be regarded as deficient and that the educational processes they pass-through should be designed to correct the noted deficiencies (Smart, 2009). Under this perspective, the idea of the deficit is suggestive of some lack in a learner or teacher, making African American students different from White students.
The views of the deficit perspective must be recognized and analyzed because they are harmful and focus on stereotypes. Deficit theories assume that some learners are inferior to other learners due to genetic, cultural, or experiential differences. This ideology is difficult because it gives the person complete blame and ignores a systemic assessment. Also, deficit beliefs raise despair for the reason that African American students’ issues are pre-determined by cultural-group association. From a different perspective, Scherer (2016) identified the theory of deficit as an attitude phenomenon that extrapolates poverty to the moral and intellectual deficiency of poor African American people. In the current study, deficit worldviews are working to explain the decreasing number of African American teachers.
However, the decline in African American teachers is a great problem in the United States. Regarding this, teachers who meet all the requirements have tremendous opportunities of being offered employment in other areas (Bond et al., 2015). For instance, Alabama faces challenges of retention and recruitment of African American educators as a result of various factors (Partelow, Spong, Brown, & Johnson, 2017). [What are these factors? If you can answer the question to these factors, how, then, is the research pertinent?] Despite the African American teachers acting as a role model for African American students in the classroom, there is insufficient literature concerning the continuous decrease in number in relation with training, college and career readiness standards, academic preparedness, an academic and professional requirement, and Praxis assessment.
To accomplish diversity, African American teachers should be given adequate resources and support needed to deliver their services effectively (Brown, 2013). The current commitment to match educator to their student demographics requires uncovering of the critical issues leading to low retention and recruitment of African American teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2016). While there is no statewide educational program in Alabama to enhance recruitment of African American teachers from HBCUs, the number could consistently decrease to suppress the trend (Darling-Hammond, 2016). [This is not clear. what does this mean? the first clause of the sentence suggests that alabama does not have strategies to recruit minority teachers, so to what “number” does the second clause refer? ] Lack of support is perceived to be one of the contributors to unpreparedness towards embracing multi-culturalism in an institution of higher learning (Smart, 2009). In light of this, the mechanisms put forth to enhance teacher diversity are ineffective to help in addressing the increasing number of African American teacher turnover and declining recruitment of African American educators (Smart, 2009).
Teachers expect students to read and comprehend content-specific text; however, many
students of color who reside in poverty lack the basic literacy skills regarding comprehending
and analyzing content-area text (Ness, 2016). Because of this, teachers are responsible for
implementing lessons about a specific discipline, as well as supporting literacy
development in upper elementary and middle school students (Ness 2016). Consequently,
pedagogical theorists and practitioners seek effective strategies that can raise achievement in reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
Figure 1.1 Conceptual Framework: The Decline in African American Teachers
Please discuss the conceptual framework below with citations.
Source: Author, 2019.
In context and relationship to the conceptual framework, the deficit theory guides the examination of the factors that impact programs, policies, or practices that contribute to or limited Praxis success among African American students at NAC and SWUA. Factors such as the quality or level of training, requirements to be admitted to TEPs, the academic and professional ability for certification, and the Praxis core assessment are considered. These elements depend on the education programs being offered to ensure that TEP students have the required skills and competencies to be hired as teachers in the teacher education profession. Studies suggest that diverse teacher workforce is beneficial to students (INCLUDE MULTIPLE CITATIONS OF THE STUDIES), and this diversity includes African American graduates from HBCUS.
Limitations
Qualitative research is interpretative (Creswell, 2013). Therefore, the researcher must interpret the data. Reading into participants’ comments because of familiarity with the research topic could prove a potential limitation of the study. In addition, thee researcher’s role as a participant-observer , as well as her professional role as a testing coordinator at one of the site institutions, may create a limitation to the study because of the potential for data without bias, with regard to “backyard” research (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992), which refers to studies taking place at the researcher’s own organization. Another limitation of this research study will be that only African American undergraduate participants who are in the process of enrolling in the teacher education program, and those African American undergraduate participants enrolled in a teacher education program from two HBCUs (i.e., NAC and SWAU) in one state (i.e., Alabama). The sample size for this phenomenology will be least twenty participants, which will also serve as limitations for the study.
Assumption
The researcher assumes the participants will answer the interview and survey questions honestly and factually during an ongoing interview session. This was encouraged through member checking (Creswell & Creswell, 2018), making sure answers were kept confidential, and establishing a rapport with the participant. Participants will sign a consent document to participate that will make them aware that the interview and survey can stop at any time during the study. The interview and survey will address the research problem. The interview was purposefully left to be open-ended questions that will allow the participants to talk freely and to begin with the different aspects that stood out most in their experiences.
Definition of Terms
This alphabetically arranged list of terms is used to operationally guide the study.
ACT: American College Test. An entrance assessment used by most colleges and universities to make admissions decisions (The Princeton Review, 2016).
African American teacher. They refer to a person origin in any of the black racial group of African American. Mostly, African Americans continue to be underrepresented in HBCU because of the high teacher turnover and lower scores (Harrison et al., 2017).
Alabama State of Department Education (ALSDE). The Alabama State Department of Education is the education agency of Alabama that serves over 740,000 public schools (Alabama State Department of Education, 2019). The department establishes expectations, monitors outcomes, and further recommends programs and curricula that ensure qualified individuals are hired to teach in institutions. The department also establishes outcome through enacting appropriate policy that guides institutions regarding training and testing of students aiming to become educators.
Educational Testing Services (ETS). It is a private non-profit educational assessment and testing organization (Testing Services, 2019). Usually, ETS develops standardized tests for K-12 and higher education sectors, including the Praxis test series.
Educative Teachers Performance Assessment- (edTPA). It is a subject-specific portfolio-based assessment of teaching performance, which demonstrates readiness among student teachers for a full-time classroom teaching career (edTPA, 2017). The edTPA is composed of three major parts, including planning for institution and assessment, instructing and engaging students in learning, and evaluating student teaching (Darling-Hammond, 2016). Importantly, this program aims at improving K-12 student outcome, strengthening the information base for accreditation.
Effective Teacher. A effective teacher is an educator whose students’ academic achievement consistently reflects acceptable rates (e.g., are at least one grade level in an academic year) for student growth.
Historically Black College or University (HBCUs). Institutions of higher learning established before 1964 for the primary purpose of educating African American students (Gasman & Tudico, 2008).
Licensure. Licensure is intended to certify that any candidate permitted to enter a profession possesses knowledge and skills to accomplish important professional activities safely and efficiently (Martin-Raugh et al., 2016).
Praxis Core Academic Skills for Educators (Praxis). Praxis is a comprehensive assessment designed to measure content knowledge and skills of candidates entering teacher preparation programs (Complete Test Preparation Inc., 2014). However, the score for passing these tests varies from one state to the other and generally follows 156 on the reading portion, 150 on the mathematics, and 162 on the writing part.
Praxis subject. Praxis subject assessment helps in ensuring award teaching endorsement is given to individuals who are highly qualified (Complete Test Preparation Inc., 2014). The five major subjects, which are tested, include social studies, math, science, English, and arts.
Praxis success. For this study, praxis success is defined as
Teacher Education Program. Teacher education program refers to the program within a college that trains and equips prospective teachers for the classroom.
Teacher Quality. Teacher quality is measured by the contribution of a teacher to student learning by test scores (Hanushek & Rivkin, 2007).
Organization of the Research Study
This dissertation will be organized into five chapters. Chapter one will provide a general overview, including the purpose and significance of the research study, statement of the problem, the significance of the problem, research about the phenomenological methodology, limitations, delimitations, assumptions, and definition of terms related to this study. Chapter two will provide a literature review on the history of HBCUs, the presence of African American teachers, diversity in the classroom, the Praxis assessments requirements for candidates to receive teacher certification, strategies, and interventions, and the admission process for entrance in the teacher education program. Chapter three will detail the qualitative methodology used to answer the four research questions to examine African American students experiences and perceptions as a test taker of the Praxis Series®. Chapter four will present the findings of the data collected during this study. Chapter five will provide a detailed summary of the finding, conclusions, discussion, and recommendations for practice and future research.
